The Personal Navigator

Tuesday, September 28, 2021

Fight for Civil Rights

Rockport History Book Club

The Fight for Civil Rights

Wednesday, September 29, 2021

Elizabeth Eckford goes to school, Little Rock, 1957

Wednesday, September 29, 2021. The Fight for Civil Rights. America began with the fight for Civil Rights for colonists and the fight continues for groups of Americans. Pick a group – what are they fighting for, what’s their strategy, are they gaining or losing ground and why? [Proposed by Mary Beth Smith]

Troy Jackson, Becoming King: Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Making of a National Leader, Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2008. 249 pp.

This is the story of a man who set out to become a disciple of Jesus Christ as a Black Baptist Preacher and became a world-class leader in the fight for racial equality.

When you read about the desperation of white men, fearful of being brought down to “equality” with African Americans in segregated Alabama in 1956, it’s hard to feel that we’ve made any progress in 65 years.

Here we are in 2021, and millions of white Americans are still determined to show their superiority over Blacks. The idea of racial equality seems terrifying to them.

Author Troy Jackson tells the story of Martin Luther King¹, Jr., born in 1929 as the son and grandson of African American Baptist preachers in Atlanta.

Martin Luther King Jr. started out in his father’s footsteps. He was a preacher, and he went to great efforts to be the best preacher. He started his education at Morehouse College, a historic Black college in Atlanta, then went to Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania, where he began to build on the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi and non-violence. Then he went to Boston University where he developed further, picking up the idea of systematic theology and rejecting ideas of God as merely an abstraction. There he met Coretta Scott whose studies were bringing her to an appreciation of socialism.

Returning home to Atlanta, he often preached at his father’s church, the Ebenezer Baptist Church. Then he was selected to take over the pulpit of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama.

Montgomery is where the movement to achieve racial equality for Black people found Martin Luther King, Jr.

Earl Warren’s Supreme Court made the historic decision in Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education in 1954 which overturned “separate but equal” and decided that it was time—long past time--- for segregation to end in United States public schools.

I grew up in southeastern Texas, and I can tell you that southern whites thought the world had ended with this decision.

However, for me, it seemed right, because I was in my first year at the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, MD and we were integrated, although there were only five Black midshipmen in my class of 1100 men.

The next year, a little African American seamstress named Rosa Parks boarded a city bus in Montgomery AL and sat down. When asked to move so that a white person could sit down, she refused. She was arrested, and a group of Blacks decided that it was time to make a stand, and they organized a temporary boycott of Montgomery busses. Most of the usual riders were African American.

The movement picked up steam. Martin Luther King, Jr. had come to town and he was asked to help with the boycott, which meant finding ways for Montgomery’s Blacks to get to work without buses. It was a boycott that stretched on for a year. It became a cause that found Martin, and he provided the leadership needed to make it work.

Martin might have lived a life as a very good preacher, but the urgency of the boycott found him, and made him a nationally known figure. Four days after Rosa Parks was arrested Martin spoke to nearly 5000 gathered in a Montgomery church, saying,

“If we are wrong, the Supreme Court of this nation is wrong. If we are wrong, the Constitution of the United States is wrong. If we are wrong, God Almighty is wrong. If we are wrong, Jesus of Nazareth was merely a utopian dreamer that never came down to earth. If we are wrong, justice is a lie. Love has no meaning. And we are determined here in Montgomery to work and fight until justice runs down like water, and righteousness like a mighty stream.”

Montgomery brought King into the civil rights movement, and he was part of the direct action to achieve results. While it was successful in gaining national attention for King and the movement, after he left, and the boycott ended, little changed for Blacks in Montgomery.

King from this point on would never engage in direct action again. From Montgomery he would operate on the national, and sometimes, the international stage, primarily providing his extraordinary oratorical skills to achieve progress.

When you think of some of King’s speeches, like his “I have a dream” speech, and of course his “If we are wrong” speech, and maybe Lincoln’s Gettysburg address, or Franklin Roosevelt’s fireside talks during World War II, or Kennedy’s “Ask not” speech, can you recall men or women in recent times who have appeared before you, on television or in person, who have affected you?

Has anyone appeared before you to make you want to do something good for your country?

Note 1: The name on his original birth certificate — filed April 12, 1934, five years after King was born — was not Martin. Nor was it Luther. In fact, for the first years of his life, he was Michael King. And it wasn’t until he was 28 that, on July 23, 1957, his birth certificate was revised.

The name Michael was crossed out, next to which someone printed carefully in black ink: “Martin Luther, Jr.”

-end-

HISTORY BOOK CLU B TOPICS FOR 2021

Karen women in Myanmar

Wednesday, October 27, 2021. Mass Refugee movements in History. Movements of a large number from one nation to another can and have changed the face of the earth. Read about any era on this topic or read about the phenomenon as a whole. Consider the movement of Arab nationals today into Europe, or the pre-historic migration of peoples from Siberia to North America. Or perhaps Irish victims of the potato famine coming to America and Canada in the 1840s. [Proposed by Sam Coulbourn]

K. Moran, New York Times

Wednesday, December 1, 2021. [Moved back one week to avoid conflict with Thanksgiving.] Is the American Empire in retreat? Roman troops met their match in German forests and Parthian deserts, and there was decay at home, and suddenly, the Roman Empire was gone. America saw the limits of empire as helicopters lifted escapees from the American Embassy in Saigon in 1975, and then again in a dramatic exodus from Kabul in 2021. We keep learning that our military power can destroy but it cannot build. China is growing and aiming at world-wide supremacy, and Russia is straining to recover its super-power. At home there are signs of decay, as our democracy is challenged, millions resist cures for a pandemic and our spirit is tested. Is this the twilight of American ascendance? [Proposed by Sam Coulbourn]

There will be no later meeting in December.

2022

Women defense workers, World War II

Wednesday, January 26, 2022. World War II at Home. World War II raged from the jungles of Burma to the steppes of Russia, all over the world. But this is a look at the Home Front, from Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s Fireside Chats to children collecting tin cans and lead toothpaste tubes, paper and even jars of grease for “The War Effort”. It includes the movement of many thousands of Black Americans from menial jobs in the South to better paying jobs in the North, working in defense plants. Millions of women also joined the work force as men went to fight overseas. Also, how Hollywood helped with patriotic films and propaganda cartoons, as well as War Bond drives. [Proposed by Cindy Grove].

Landing of Pedro Cabral in future Brazil, 1500. Painting by Oscar da Silva, 1922.

Wednesday, February 23, 2022. South America has a rich history, from Incas and other indigenous peoples to colonization by Spanish, Portuguese, and other European nations, onward to monarchy in Argentina, slavery, and struggling democracies. It’s the history of Machu Pichu, exploration and exploitation of the Amazon, Simon Bolivar, Pedro Cabral, Juan Peron, Hugo Chavez, Augusto Pinochet, The Falklands War, Shining Path. Select any period, any nation or group, and let us learn together. [Proposed by Sam Coulbourn]

Wednesday, March 30, 2022. Reconstruction, 1865-77 Abraham Lincoln had a clear picture of what should be done after the end of the War Between the States, but his assassination meant that Andrew Johnson, the Democrat who succeeded him, would be President. Read about this dangerous, murderous time in our history as we sought to regain the 11 Confederate States in the Union. Read about the growth of white supremacist organizations, and the different ways that America handled the end of slavery, and welcoming (?) millions of newly freed Africans to America. [Proposed by Mary Beth Smith]

Wednesday, April 27, 2022. [Proposed by you?]

Wednesday, May 25, 2022. [Proposed by you?]

Wednesday, June 29, 2022. [Proposed by you?]

Wednesday, July 27, 2022. [Proposed by you?]

Thursday, August 26, 2021

North Africa History

Rockport History Book Club

North Africa History

Wednesday, August 25, 2021

Arab Spring in Egypt

Wednesday, August 25, 2021. History of North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt, and including Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Sudan, Mauritania and more. Pick a nation or a group of nations in the northern tier of Africa and learn how they interact, how they came to be, what problems are they having, or had, that attracted world attention in the past. Some examples: The Barbary Pirates and how America’s President Jefferson took them on; The Italian Colonial history in Abyssinia and Somaliland; World War II—Field Marshal Rommel in North Africa; “Carthago delenda est!” The Punic War between Rome and Carthage; Tunisia and he Start of Arab Spring. [Proposed by Sam Coulbourn]

Gregory Fremont-Barnes, The Wars of the Barbary Pirates: To the shores of Tripoli—the rise of the U.S. Navy and Marines, Oxford, UK:Osprey. 2006.

I thought it would be interesting to look at the history of this layer of countries on the Mediterranean shore of Africa, but my exposure was because of that body of water, more than those countries.

I have read for years about the heroic efforts of America’s young navy in fighting the Barbary pirates, and for several years I sailed back and forth from Tangier to Tripoli to Marsa Matruh and the Gulf of Sollum, often submerged, cruising at 200- or 300-feet depth, but sometimes in a destroyer trailing warships of the Soviet Navy.

These nations have history going back thousands of years, while there was a vast forest where the Sahara Desert is now. The Phoenicians visited this land and planted settlers, and so did the Greeks and the Romans. At the very start of the birth of Islam in the seventh century CE Arabs swept over the land, which became known as Maghreb, or “The West” in Arabic.

Muslims had advanced in Europe in Spain and France and then 1492 marked the year when Grenada fell and they were swept out of Europe, back across the Straits of Gibraltar to Africa. Spaniards came after them and that marked the high-water mark of Spain’s colonialism in North Africa.

Then came the Ottomans, who occupied the Maghreb and extracted tribute from the residents and local leaders. Gradually collecting the tribute or sending it to Constantinople got to be too hard. But the local pirates on the Barbary Coast kept it up, attacking merchant ships sailing along the eastern Atlantic coast, or along the Mediterranean. Some Barbary pirates sailed out further, toward South America, and along the British Isles.

One pair of brothers, called the Barbarossa Brothers, Aruj and Khayr ad Din, born in Lesbos in the Aegean, became Muslims, came to Tunis in 1504 and arranged with the ruler to give him a fifth of their booty. They were wild. They gathered a squadron of ships and one day they captured the treasure galley, a large boat propelled by slave rowers, belonging to Pope Julius II. Aruj was killed soon after, but Khayr raised hell for decades, while many thousands were killed.

European Navies worked out individual arrangements with the Dey of Algiers, the Bey of Tunis, the Bashaw of Tripoli and the Emperor of Morocco, and American colonial merchantmen sailing the Barbary coast were protected by the Royal Navy—until the Revolutionary War ended.

With war over, the American Continental Congress sold the warships that had helped to win the war. Under Presidents Washington and Adams, America began to pay tribute to these Barbary pirates, until President Jefferson took over and he demanded that America build a Navy again, and Congress agreed.

I supplemented my reading at this point with an 1805 newspaper I have in my collection. The Boston Repertory for Friday September 6, 1805, carries a story from Salem about the adventure of General Eaton, operating under orders of the United States, landed the previous December in Alexandria, Egypt with a cargo of money, musquets (sic), pikes, ammunition, field artillery, camp equipment, etc. and several officers. They met with the ex-Bashaw of Tripoli and gathered an army of some 6000 volunteers. They marched west toward Tripoli. They encountered Tripolitan forces and captured the city of Dern, seeking to free American slaves held there, and obtain an “honorable treaty of peace” for the United States. When the city fell, one of the eight U.S. Marines replaced the Tripolitan flag with the Stars and Stripes. This was a first for the young USA, and the reason for “the shores of Tripoli” in the Marines’ Hymn.

The first war of the United States with the Barbary States—the Tripolitan, from 1801 to 1805, was mainly the young U.S. Navy growing, with officers like Decatur, Preble and Bainbridge showing their skill and improving their leadership for fighting and defeating the Royal Navy in the War of 1812.

The second, the Algerine war from 1815-16 was exacerbated by the British and lasted only three days. It resulted in the end of tribute payments and enslavement of American sailors.

-end-

HISTORY BOOK CLUB TOPICS FOR 2021

Elizabeth Eckford goes to school, Little Rock, 1957

Karen women in Myanmar

K. Moran, New York Times

There will be no later meeting in December.

2022

Women defense workers, World War II

Landing of Pedro Cabral in future Brazil, 1500.

Painting by Oscar da Silva, 1922.

Wednesday, March 30, 2022. Reconstruction, 1865-77 Abraham Lincoln had a clear picture of what should be done after the end of the War Between the States, but his assassination meant that Andrew Johnson, the Democrat who succeeded him, would be President. Read about this dangerous, murderous time in our history as we sought to regain the 11 Confederate States in the Union. Read about the growth of white supremacist organizations, and the different ways that America handled the end of slavery, and welcoming (?) millions of newly freed Africans to America. [Proposed by Mary Beth Smith]

Friday, July 30, 2021

Influence of Women in American History

Rockport History Book Club

Influence of Women in

American History

Wednesday, July 27, 2021

Wednesday, July 28, 2021. Influence of Women in American History. Wednesday, July 28, 2021. Influence of Women in American History. Women have been around as long as men, with and without a voice. How have women tried to influence America? Did they succeed or fail? Why? What kind of barriers did men construct to constrain women to a domestic life? Pick a time or an issue that was important to women and explore it from the female perspective. Read about Seneca Falls, NY; Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Sojourner Truth, Alice Paul; Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, ERA, Phyllis Schlafly, Gloria Steinem, Myra Bradwell; Domestic Violence; Reproductive Rights. [Proposed by Mary Beth Smith]

Mary Walton, A Woman’s Crusade: Alice Paul and the Battle for the Ballot, 2010. Palgrave, Macmillan: New York, NY. 284 pp.

Imagine a country where only half the adults have the right to vote.

Alice Paul was a pretty, slender, frail, modest and shy young Quaker woman who came from a family of means. Her leadership, against tremendous opposition, propelled women into the Twentieth Century.

Her fierce determination and strong leadership led women all over the United States to fight for the right to vote and provided a template for women and men to fight for causes right up to today.

Alice was the quintessential public relations genius. She ranks with Gandhi in his fight for independence for India and Martin Luther King, Jr. in his fight for Civil Rights. When Alice asked an associate to do something, she asked quietly, with those “violet eyes”… few could refuse.

Author Walton has had a career as a journalist, with 20 years at the Philadelphia Inquirer. Her account of this Woman’s Crusade is fast-paced and filled with suspense. You know that now women have the right to vote, but she shows the fierce, brutal opposition they faced from men, and often women. It was a tough fight!

Alice, born in 1885 in Paulsboro, NJ, grew up in a “Quaker cocoon”. She attended Quaker schools and graduated from Swarthmore College in 1905. A friendly professor pointed her in the direction of a career in social work, and she began working in settlement houses in New York City. She experienced the struggles of the urban poor, the newly arrived immigrants, the crime, and filth, and terrible living conditions in the Manhattan slums. Alice concluded that she was “not doing much good in the world—you couldn’t change the situation by social work.”

In 1907 Alice won a Quaker scholarship to a Friends study center in Birmingham, England. There she encountered Christabel Pankhurst, as she led a drive to demand the ballot for women in England. Alice soon joined the cause of fighting for suffrage in England, marching to Parliament, joining in huge demonstrations, fighting in picket lines, getting arrested and jailed, starvation campaigns and force-feeding. Alice, the Quaker from New Jersey met Lucy Burns, an Irish-American Catholic from Brooklyn, and a Vassar graduate there, and the two began their friendship and struggle for women’s right to vote.

In early 1910, Alice returned to America and at once got involved with the cause of American women’s suffrage. In April of that year, President William Howard Taft agreed to deliver the welcoming speech before the nation’s largest suffrage organization. He said, “The theory that Hottentots or any other uneducated, altogether unintelligent class is fitted for self-government is a theory that I wholly dissent from.” The President continued to declaim about his expectation that suffrage would be embraced by the class of women “less desirable” rather than those who are intelligent and patriotic.

His remarks were met with a huge “hisssssss” by the women.

Alice began to grow first in the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NASWSA), and then established her own. For much of the next decade there was a running gun battle between these two organizations, NAWSA working to obtain suffrage in each state, and Alice’s focusing on a federal amendment to the Constitution.

Alice’s big public relations event was set for the day before President Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration in March 1913. Nearly 28 years old, Alice obtained permission from the Washington, DC chief of police for her parade, right down Pennsylvania Avenue. In 1913 the concept of “marching on Washington” was almost unknown. But Alice and her organization pulled women from suffrage organizations all over the United States.

What a parade it was! Floats that showed the progress in American womanhood; females breaking the barriers of discrimination, fighting for their places in a man’s world; How it was here in 1840; women farmers, military nurses, college women, teachers, librarians, and on and on, and everyone wearing purple, white and green. There was a beautiful, famous socialite (Inez Milholland) riding an elegant horse, and trumpeters and drum and bugle bands.

Women in New York staged a separate march of women from New York to Washington to join the parade.

The police, who shared the attitude of many American males toward suffrage, did a particularly miserable job of controlling the crowds at the parade, many of whom were roaring drunk. Fortunately, Alice had arranged with the Secretary of War to provide a company of Army cavalry, and they cleared the path for the thousands of women marchers. When it was all over, the poor showing by police and drunks somehow worked to the advantage of the suffrage organizers, as it aroused public outrage and sympathy.

Alice organized rail trips of women organizers all across the United States to form stronger suffrage organizations, particularly in states that had already granted women the right to vote. There were cross-country trips by automobile, no small feat in those days.

“Suffies” at the White House, 1918.

Alice and her growing entourage next went directly after President Wilson, staged “silent sentinel” pickets along the gates in front of the White House. Alice, ever the lady and the Quaker, ruled her demonstrators with an iron hand, cautioning them never to argue or fight with hecklers or officials.

In 1917, Wilson, who had labored to keep the country out of war, found that we had to fight and, with Congress, ordered troops to France to fight the Germans.

The banners came and grew in number, as they chided the President, using his own words against him; chiding him and America because Russia, now the budding Soviet country, allowed women the vote; calling the President “Kaiser Wilson” because he was sending men to fight for freedom, but women in America had not the freedom to vote.

On the fight went, with Alice increasing her attacks on Wilson. Finally, women picketers were arrested and thrown into the D.C. jail, and down to the new D.C. prison at Occoquan, Virginia, where they encountered unbelievable conditions. Here these women, many from very comfortable family settings, found themselves assigned a cot next to a syphilitic black woman with one leg amputated and the other crawling with maggots. They ate oatmeal with worms and maggots in it and drank water from a bucket used by all the prisoners. Toilets filled up and were rarely flushed. Alice was put into what would now be called a psychiatric section for a time.

The women went on hunger strikes and were force fed; if they kept their mouths shut, tubes were stuffed down their noses.

Author Walton paints a graphic picture of this stage in the women’s fight for the right to vote.

Eventually, on June 4, 1919, Congress passed the Susan B. Anthony Amendment, named after the originator of America’s fight for women’s suffrage, who had died in 1906.

On August 17, 1920, Tennessee became the 36^th state to ratify the Amendment, making it a part of the Constitution.

Alice shortly afterward introduced a new cause, the Equal Rights Amendment, which she presented to Congress in 1923. In 1972 it passed both houses of Congress and went to the states for ratification but failed to receive the requisite number before the deadline mandated by Congress.

Alice died at 93 on July 9^th, 1977.

-end-

Here is a fascinating video commentary on Alice Paul by Mary Walton:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FwFSi2fTZuQ

HISTORY BOOK CLUB TOPICS FOR 2021

Arab Spring in Egypt

Elizabeth Eckford goes to school, Little Rock, 1957

Karen women in Myanmar

Wednesday, December 1, 2021. [Moved back one week to avoid conflict with Thanksgiving.] Reconstruction, 1865-77 Abraham Lincoln had a clear picture of what should be done after the end of the War Between the States, but his assassination meant that Andrew Johnson, the Democrat who succeeded him, would be President. Read about this dangerous, murderous time in our history as we sought to regain the 11 Confederate States in the Union. Read about the growth of white supremacist organizations, and the different ways that America handled the end of slavery, and welcoming (?) millions of newly freed Africans to America. [Proposed by Mary Beth Smith]

There will be no later meeting in December.

2022

Women defense workers,World War II

Wednesday, January 26, 2022. World War II at Home. World War II raged from the jungles of Burma to the steppes of Russia, all over the world. But this is a look at the Home Front, from Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s Fireside Chats to children collecting tin cans and lead toothpaste tubes, paper and even jars of grease for “The War Effort”. It includes the movement of many thousands of Black Americans from menial jobs in the South to better paying jobs in the North, working in defense plants. Millions of women also joined the work force as men went to fight overseas. Also, how Hollywood helped with patriotic films and propaganda cartoons, as well as War Bond drives. [Proposed by Cindy Grove].

Landing of Pedro Cabral in future Brazil, 1500. Painting by Oscar da Silva, 1922.

Wednesday, February 23, 2022. History of South America. South America has a rich history, from Incas and other indigenous peoples to colonization by Spanish, Portuguese, and other European nations, onward to monarchy in Argentina, slavery, and struggling democracies. It’s the history of Machu Pichu, exploration and exploitation of the Amazon, Simon Bolivar, Pedro Cabral, Juan Peron, Hugo Chavez, Augusto Pinochet, The Falklands War, Shining Path. Select any period, any nation or group, and let us learn together. [Proposed by Sam Coulbourn]

Thursday, July 1, 2021

Life of a President

Rockport History Book Club

The Life of an

American President

Wednesday, June 30, 2021

Wednesday, June 30, 2021. The Life of an American President. Suggest a review of the 46 Presidents of the United States. Read biography of one or more Presidents. Possible topics for discussion are the major policies, achievements, strengths, failures and weaknesses relating to domestic policy, foreign policy, immigration, use of military force. What kind of world did he live in? What are your thoughts? Are we creating a “more perfect union”? Does history show U.S. presidential politics getting more or less venial today than historically? [Proposed by Craig Cervo]

Merry, Robert W. A Country of Vast Designs: James K. Polk, the Mexican War and the Conquest of the American Continent. 2009, New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. 576 pp.

James Knox Polk, in just one term, from 1845 to 1849, made a huge impact upon the United States. With his leadership, America expanded to acquire Texas, New Mexico, Nevada, Wyoming, Utah, Washington, Oregon, Idaho and Arizona. He pledged to serve only one term, and that’s what he did, but in those four years, he really accomplished some important things.

Polk was in some ways a chip off the old block of Old Hickory, Andrew Jackson. A Democrat from Tennessee, he served at a time when the pressure to end slavery, and the efforts to retain it, were reaching the breaking point. He was not a “people” person like Jackson. As a matter of fact, he didn’t really seem to like people. He was a “procedure” person. He was all about doing whatever it took to advance the goals of the Democratic Party.

Polk’s predecessor, the renegade Whig John Tyler, had set the stage for annexation of the Republic of Texas into the Union. The prospect of annexing Texas appeared as part of an overall scheme to extend the United States to the Pacific Ocean, at the same time cutting off a possible British scheme to connect Canada with their Oregon territory, and then perhaps take over California, and head the Americans off at the pass.

Slave states and Abolition states saw Texas differently. Southerners wanted Texas to join as a slave state, which would give them more votes, more political weight, and, if they should have to secede from the Northern states, more of a Slaveholding Confederacy. Northerners wanted no part of Texas if it meant another slave state.

Texas joined the Union in Polk’s first year, 1845, and then the trouble began. At that time, the southern border between Texas and Mexico was in dispute, and Polk prepared to send his army south to straighten things out. His lead general was a crusty prima donna named Winfield Scott. Polk wanted Scott to marshal his troops and head down to Texas, but Scott dillied and dallied, and questioned whether he had the President’s backing.

Scott wrote letters to the Secretary of War and shot off his mouth as if he thought he was bulletproof, even though he himself was a Whig, working for a Democrat in the Executive Mansion. Scott was a thorn in Polk’s hide.

However, Polk didn’t fire Scott—he simply elevated another general, Zachary Taylor, (1784-1850), and sent him down to Texas. When Polk left office in 1849, he was succeeded by Taylor.

Taylor led the American forces admirably in opposing the Mexicans at the Nueces River, the northern boundary, according to Mexico, and 150 miles north of the Rio Grande River, the boundary according to the U.S. Soon Taylor had the Mexicans on the run. They were in such a hurry to get back south across the Rio Grande that 300 drowned in the crossing.

There was a lot of opposition in the country to war with Mexico. Whigs claimed that Polk trampled the Constitution and deceived the electorate to manufacture an illegal war for shady purposes, without the support of the public. But indeed, Polk had much public support for war with Mexico. [It seems as if modern presidents have been accused of “manufacturing illegal wars” like Lyndon Johnson with the Tonkin Gulf incident, and G.W. Bush with Iraqi nuclear weapons.]

The War with Mexico lasted 17 months, and Scott did get back in Polk’s good graces and invaded and captured Mexico City.

At about the same time the Americans negotiated with the British and finally achieved a settlement that gave the U.S. the division with Canada around Vancouver Island that exists today.

Still more forces were at work in Alta California, now known as the State of California, and that became a State in 1849.

Perhaps no other president presents such a great difference between actual accomplishment and popular recognition. However, America’s eleventh president’s accomplishments included a tariff policy that led to prosperity; his ‘Polk Doctrine’ [expounding U.S. resistance to European meddling in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere] has been approved and extended; his expansion policy gave the United States free access to the Pacific. Polk left the White House in March 1849 and returned to his home, Polk Place, in Nashville. The stress of the presidency had left him in poor health, and he died of cholera that summer, on June 15, at age 53.

America in 1849, when Polk left office, was a Country of Vast Designs. Today, it is still digesting those designs as it struggles to find its place as a sometime unwilling leader in the world.

S.W. Coulbourn

HISTORY BOOK CLUB TOPICS FOR 2021

“Suffies” at the White House, 1917.

Arab Spring in Egypt

Wednesday, August 25, 2021. History of North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt, and including Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Sudan, Mauritania and more. Pick a nation or a group of nations in the northern tier of Africa and learn how they interact, how they came to be, what problems are they having, or had, that attracted world attention in the past. Some examples: The Barbary Pirates and how America’s President Jefferson took them on; The Italian Colonial history in Abyssinia and Somaliland; World War II—Field Marshal Rommel in North Africa; “Carthago delenda est!” The Punic War between Rome and Carthage; Tunisia and he Start of Arab Spring. [Proposed by Sam Coulbourn]